Introduction
We have already presented the role of Carbon Dioxide Elimination (CDE). in the energy transition and its crucial role in climate scenarios. However, as part of the fight against climate change, various carbon management technologies are being developed to reduce the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Another technology, often confused with EDC or at least associated with its development, is carbon capture and storage (CCS) and carbon capture and utilization (CCU). Although often lumped together under the banner of carbon management, these technologies differ in profound ways from EDC. They differ fundamentally from EDC in terms of CO₂ sources, processes and objectives.
So we're going to explore these differences in greater depth to better understand the distinct and complementary role of each technology in the transition to Net-Zero.
Comparison of the three carbon technologies
CCS, CCU, and EDC although three key technologies for carbon management, are distinguished by distinct mechanisms and specific objectives. CCS captures CO₂ at source, mainly in heavy industries, for storage in deep geological formations, sometimes used to enhance hydrocarbon recovery (EOR). EDC, meanwhile, captures CO₂ for reuse in the production of commercial products, reducing dependence on fossil carbon sources. EDC is distinguished by its ability to directly remove CO₂ from the atmosphere, aiming to achieve negative net emissions by storing carbon or incorporating it into sustainable products. While CCS and CCU focus on decarbonizing industries that are difficult to transform quickly, EDC targets the reduction of atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, offering an essential solution to counter historical and residual emissions.
The importance of a diversified approach to tackling climate change cannot be underestimated. This portfolio strategy, which includes complementary solutions such as Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS), enhances decarbonization efforts at scale. CCS and the use of captured carbon (CCU) have their place in reducing industrial emissions, and their development generates significant synergies with other EDC technologies, particularly those focused on storing CO₂ in solid form, such as DAC (Direct Air Capture) and BECCS (Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage). This integrated and complementary approach is essential to achieving carbon neutrality, making the most of each technology's capabilities.
| Technology | Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) | Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) | Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) | |
| How it works | The CSC consists of capture CO₂ directly at sourceemissions from power plants and industrial facilities, then transported and stored in deep geological formations for long-term sequestration. In some cases, these formations are stocks of fossil resources (gas or oil) whose exploitation is aided by CO2 storage (known as Enhanced Oil Recovery or EOR). | The CCU involves reuse of captured CO₂ to create commercial products such as synthetic fuels, chemicals, building materials and plastics. | The EDC consists of remove CO₂ directly from the atmosphere and store it permanently. | |
Conditions: | Source of CO₂: | Mainly sources industrial | Mainly sources industrial or atmospheric | CO₂ atmospheric. |
| Process : | Water catchment Separation of CO₂ from other gases emitted by industrial sources via chemical processes such as amine absorption. | Water catchment : As with CCS, CO₂ is captured from industrial exhaust gases. | Water catchment : Techniques such as direct air capture (DAC) use chemical processes to extract CO₂ from ambient air. | |
Storage : Injection of CO₂ into deep geological formations such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs or saline aquifers. | Use : Captured CO₂ is used in industrial processes to produce consumer goods or synthetic fuels. | Storage Storage in biomass, geological storage similar to CCS, or use in sustainable products. | ||
| Objectives : | Decarbonize industries where emissions reductions are difficult to achieve quickly | Decarbonize industries where emissions reductions are difficult to achieve quickly | Reduce CO₂ concentrations in the atmosphere. | |
| Enable maintaining fossil fuel assets where necessary | Reuse CO₂ captured to reduce the use of new fossil carbon sources. | Reach negative net emissions by removing more CO₂ than is emitted. | ||
| Counterbalance historical and residual emissions from sectors that are difficult to decarbonize. | ||||
Differences in the nature of the three technologies
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), EDC is defined as human activities that capture CO₂ from the atmosphere and store it sustainably in geological reservoirs, on land or in the ocean, or in durable products. Three key principles guide this definition:
- Principle 1 - The source of CO₂ must be the atmosphere: The CO₂ captured must come from the atmosphere, not from fossil sources.
- Principle 2 - Permanent storage : CO₂ storage must be sustainable, preventing its rapid reintroduction into the atmosphere.
- Principle 3 - Additional human intervention : The capture and storage of CO₂ must result from human intervention, in addition to the Earth's natural processes.
Source of the CO₂
A fundamental difference between EDC (EDC) and Carbon Capture and Storage/Utilization (CCS/CCU) lies in the source of the CO₂ captured. EDC targets atmospheric or biogenic CO₂ (derived from biomass during its decomposition or combustion), removing it directly from the atmosphere to reduce the overall concentration of this greenhouse gas. Techniques such as direct air capture (DAC), biochar or sequestration by ecosystems are typical of this approach. By aligning with the IPCC's first principle, this approach makes it possible to actively reduce the global concentration of CO₂.
On the other hand, CSC capture CO₂ mainly from industrial point sources, such as power plants and factories. UCC also uses industrial sources, sometimes CO₂ that is biogenic but ends up being re-emitted. This distinction is crucial as it determines the main objective of each technology: EDC aims for a net reduction in greenhouse gases, while CCS and CCU seek to prevent the emission of CO₂ from industrial sources.
Capture and Storage Process
CO₂ capture and storage processes also vary between EDC, CCS and CCU. CCS focuses on the capture of industrial CO₂, followed by its transport and storage in deep geological formations, guaranteeing permanent sequestration. UCC, on the other hand, reuses captured atmospheric or industrial CO₂ to produce synthetic fuels, chemicals, cement and plastics. This storage is often temporary, as the CO₂ is usually re-emitted when the finished products are used.
In contrast, EDC uses geological storage methods but is not limited to them. A common technique in EDC is the use of biochar, a sustainable material that stores CO₂ in surface soils for several hundred years, offering a long-term sequestration solution. In fact, biochar is the main form of EDC today, with 81% tonnes of EDC delivered. from CDR.FYI. Only EDC and CSC fulfill the second principle.
Environmental objectives and implications
The final objectives and environmental implications of EDC, CCS and CCU technologies differ considerably. EDC aims to permanently remove CO₂ from the atmosphere, contributing directly to reducing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and achieving negative emissions. This approach is essential for reversing historical emissions and offsetting residual emissions from sectors that are difficult to decarbonize.
CCS, on the other hand, focuses on reducing emissions at source, preventing industrial CO₂ from entering the atmosphere, but without reducing the CO₂ already in the air. UCC, while offering temporary solutions using captured CO₂, depends on the storage life of the finished products, which means that CO₂ is often re-emitted, as in the case of synthetic fuels produced by DAC and used as e-methane. What's more, when using industrial CO₂, DAC doesn't even allow for a drop in emissions.
The EDC's objectives are clearly aligned with the IPCC's third principle, which requires human intervention to capture and store CO₂ beyond natural processes. EDC aims for a net reduction in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, seeking to achieve negative emissions. CCS, while reducing emissions at source, does not reduce existing atmospheric CO₂. UCC, while recycling CO₂ for temporary use, also fails to achieve the net reduction objective, as the CO₂ is ultimately re-emitted.
EDC
CSC/CCU
Technological synergies between CCS/CCU and EDC
Despite their major differences, carbon management through CCS, CCU and EDC technologies presents complex interactions where the development of one can significantly benefit the other. This complementarity can be exploited to optimize the reduction of CO₂ emissions and accelerate the deployment of effective long-term solutions to combat climate change.
Infrastructure CO₂ Shared
The development of CO₂ networks, essential for CCS, creates an infrastructure that can also facilitate EDC expansion. Pipeline networks and geological storage sites established for CCS can be used to store CO₂ captured by EDC technologies, such as direct air capture (DAC). European projects to develop the CCS pathway will also enable CO₂ from the EDC to be moved to storage areas. This reduces initial costs and barriers to entry for the EDC, enabling faster and more cost-effective scale-up.
DAC development and impact on CCU
The use of DAC for CCU, in particular the synthetic fuel production (e-fuels) illustrates another synergy. Although the e-fuels produced represent a reduction in emissions, their development stimulates DAC technologies. These advances directly benefit the EDC, as technological improvements and cost reductions in DAC can be transposed to improve the efficiency and viability of EDC using DAC with geological storage.
Temporality and Transitional Role of the CSC
The role of the CSC is envisaged as a transitional solution by the International Energy Agency (IEA), particularly up to 2030-2040. This period is crucial for the development and optimization of CCS technologies, which could then facilitate a broader transition to more permanent approaches such as EDC. The establishment of CO₂ networks and storage for CCS during this period creates a foundation on which EDC can develop post-2030, after massive emissions reductions have been achieved by other means.
The complementarity between CCS/CCU and EDC is not just technical but also strategic. The gradual deployment of CCS as a bridging technology paves the way for EDC, which will play a crucial role in the long-term management of atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. These technologies, although operating on different principles, are interdependent and essential to achieving global climate goals. Their integrated development not only ensures a reduction in CO₂ emissions in the short term, but also opens the door to sustainable solutions for a carbon-free future.
In France, CSC and CCU
On June 23, 2023, at an important meeting of the Conseil National de l'Industrie at Le Bourget, the French Prime Minister unveiled the first national strategy of CCS and CCU. This initiative marks a crucial step in the integration of carbon capture into the country's emissions reduction policy, in line with the ambitious objectives of the Green Pact for Europe.
The French CCS/CCU strategy envisages capturing between 4 and 8.5 million tonnes of CO₂ per year by 2030, increasing to 15 to 20 million tonnes per year by 2050. The focus is on managing emissions for which there are no economically viable decarbonization alternatives at present
One of the pillars of this strategy is the development of a robust infrastructure for transporting and storing CO₂. The government plans to assess CO₂ geological storage capacities in France by the end of 2023, with plans to launch tenders for seismic studies and CO₂ injections at pilot sites between 2024 and 2025. These steps are essential considering the storage potential of 15 to 30 MtCO2/year assessed in the strategy.
As presented above, the development of CCS infrastructure and capacity in France could act as a catalyst for the future deployment of EDC in the country. The transmission network and geological storage sites set up for CCS will provide a foundation on which EDC technologies can build.
France's partners and the CSC and CCU
United States
The United States stands out as the undisputed world leader in the CCS sector, with nearly 24 million tonnes stored by 2022, as much as the other 10 largest countries combined. a position consolidated by massive investment and an already well-established infrastructure. With 15 operational CCS facilities capable of capturing around 22 million metric tons of CO2 per year, the United States far outstrips other nations in terms of capacity and development of this technology. The majority of these facilities are integrated into plants that process natural gas or produce ethanol and ammonia, demonstrating the effective application of the technology in key industrial sectors.
This leadership is also due to the unprecedented financial support of the federal government, which has injected more than $8.2 billion via Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) and expanded tax credits for CCS through the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA). This incentive framework not only promotes the deployment of new facilities, but also encourages research and development into more cost-effective methods of capturing and storing CO2. The USA already boasts one of the world's most extensive CO2 pipeline networks, facilitating the transport and storage of captured carbon. This infrastructure, combined with robust legislative support, positions the U.S. not only as a pioneer, but also as the leading global player in the adoption and expansion of large-scale CCS.
In addition, growth prospects for CCS in the United States are promising. The evolving regulatory framework, including recent proposals by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to limit CO2 emissions from power plants, could further boost CCS adoption. The United States are actively developing their infrastructure transport of carbon, in particular through the expansion of the network of pipelines dedicated to CO2, notably via the SCALE act.. As more and more states obtain regulatory authority over Class VI wells for geological storage of CO2, significant synergies are expected with the EDC.
The United Kingdom
The UK's potential for carbon capture and storage (CCS) is considerable, thanks to its geological capacity and recent policy developments aimed at accelerating deployment. The UK has an estimated total carbon storage potential of 78 gigatonnes (Gt) of CO2, mainly located in offshore saline aquifers and depleted oil and gas fields.
The UK government has set ambitious targets for CCS, aiming to capture 20-30 million tonnes of CO2 per year by 2030, which would represent a significant contribution to the country's overall emissions reduction goals. It has published a "CCUS Net Zero investment roadmap"The UK government has pledged substantial financial support for CCS. The UK government has pledged substantial financial support for CCS, with £20 billion of investment announced to support the sector. The strategy includes the establishment of a competitive CCS market by 2035.
These targets have yet to be confirmed by the new Stramer government, although several industrial projects are already well advanced. The first two clusters, HyNet in the north-west of England and East Coast Cluster in Teesside and Humber, are due to start operating by 2025, with annual storage capacities of 10 and 15 million tonnes respectively.
Germany
Germany, once a laggard in CCS, is now beginning to exploit its full potential, thanks to recent initiatives and a significant strategic shift. In 2021, the German industrial sector emitted around 180 million tonnes of CO2, a figure the country plans to reduce to 40 million tonnes by 2030 to stay on track for carbon neutrality by 2045. To meet these ambitious targets, CCS has become a key component of Germany's decarbonization strategy, particularly for industries that are difficult to electrify, such as cement, lime and waste incineration.
In February 2024, a fundamental shift in Germany's approach to CCS was marked by the announcement of a strategy by the Federal Ministry of Economics and Climate Action. The strategy, drawn up following extensive dialogue with stakeholders and a legislative review in 2022, includes amendments to the Carbon Dioxide Storage Act (KSpG), which had hitherto held back the development of CCS in Germany. The bill, approved by the cabinet in May 2024, now facilitates the construction of CO2 pipelines and the exploration of offshore storage sites, notably under the North Sea.
A major element of this new strategy is the strategic partnership with Norway to develop CO2 storage projects and export infrastructures. The pipeline project between Germany and Norway, led by Equinor and Wintershall Dea, will transport up to 40 million tonnes of CO2 per year. Germany also has significant potential geological storage capacity beneath the North Sea, although this still requires further exploration and validation. They could represent over 5 Gt of storage. Germany's only CO2 storage project to date, at Ketzin in Brandenburg, has demonstrated the feasibility and safety of the technology, storing 67,000 tonnes of CO2 between 2008 and 2013.
The next CSC/CCU giants?
Brazil
Brazil is positioning itself as a major player in CCS, becoming the second country in terms of storage capacity after the United States in 2022, with over 4 million tonnes... Thanks to significant geological formations, Brazil has exceptional potential for long-term CO2 storage, offering a sustainable solution for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. According to the CCS Brazil, the country could capture over 190 million metric tons of CO2 per year, requiring substantial storage capacity. What's more, the Brazilian Center for International Relations (CEBRI) presented scenarios envisaging BECCS (bioenergy with carbon capture and storage) capacities ranging from 274 to 369 million tonnes of CO2 by 2050.
Denmark and the northern countries
Denmark is emerging as a potential leader in CC Europe), with an ambitious plan supported by recent investments and developments. The Danish government has allocated 16 billion Danish kroner (around 2.2 billion euros) to support the CCS industry, to capture and store at least 3.2 million tonnes of CO2 per year by 2029. The plan includes the launch of two major tenders in 2024 and 2025, with additional investments of $3.9 billion to accelerate the deployment of this crucial technology.
Denmark's potential for CO2 storage is immense, with estimates ranging from 12 to 22 billion tonnes of CO2 that could be stored underground, mainly under the North Sea. This potential represents around 400 to 700 times Denmark's annual CO2 emissions, underlining the scale of the storage capacity available. The INEOS-led Greensand project plays a key role in this strategy, with plans to start storing CO2 as early as 2028 in safe geological formations such as Gassum.
In addition, Denmark is becoming a European hub for cross-border CO2 storage, collaborating with countries such as Norway, Sweden, Belgium and the Netherlands to develop continental-scale CO2 transport and storage infrastructures. For example, in partnership with Norway, the 2024 Northern Lights project will transport and store up to 1.5 million tonnes of CO2 per year beneath the North Sea.
Conclusion
Carbon management technologies, including EDC, CCS, and CCU, play complementary but distinct roles in the overall decarbonization strategy. These technologies differ not only in their approach to the source of CO₂-EDC targeting atmospheric CO₂ and CCS/CCU focusing on industrial emissions-but also in their temporality and end goals. CCS, envisaged as a transitional technology by the International Energy Agency until 2030-2040, is crucial for immediately reducing industrial emissions. In parallel, EDC, which aims for a net reduction in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, is projected to play a key role post-2030, after significant emissions reductions have been achieved.
By adopting a proactive CCS and CCU strategy, France is laying the groundwork for the future development of EDC. By establishing a robust infrastructure for CCS, France is not only addressing its immediate emissions reduction targets, but is also paving the way for the large-scale deployment of EDC. This early development is essential, as it is estimated that almost 70 Mt of EDC capacity will be needed in the future to achieve carbon neutrality. Ultimately, the strategic integration and implementation of these carbon capture technologies will be vital to achieving global climate ambitions and a sustainable, resilient future.
AFEN is dedicated to promoting and supporting all forms of Carbon Dioxide Elimination (CDE) technologies, including those that are complementary to Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). This commitment reflects the association's desire to create synergies between different emission reduction technologies, thereby optimizing national efforts to achieve carbon neutrality.
